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Warfare
Battles, tactics, weapons, and commanders across the ancient world, from phalanxes and legions to sieges and naval wars, explained with context.
Roman Caligae: How Soldiers’ Hobnailed Boots Worked
Roman caligae were leather military shoes reinforced with iron hobnails. Surviving finds reveal how they were made, worn, repaired and replaced.
Greek Sling Bullets: Ancient Taunts Written in Lead
Greek sling bullets carried taunts such as ΔΕΞΑΙ (“Catch!”), commanders’ names and symbols. Finds from Olynthus to Hippos reveal their manufacture and battlefield use.
The Sacred Band of Thebes: 300 Warriors and 150 Pairs of Lovers
Thebes formed an elite force of 300 men, remembered as 150 pairs of lovers. Its victories over Sparta and destruction at Chaeronea survive in…
The Khopesh: Egypt’s Curved Sword and Its Place in Warfare
The khopesh was Egypt’s distinctive curved bronze sword. Surviving weapons and temple reliefs reveal its cutting edge, royal symbolism and uncertain battlefield tactics.
Was a Viking King Too Fat to Escape His Burning Hall?
The story of a Viking king too fat to escape a fire has no identified medieval source. The sagas tell different stories of rulers…
Agincourt: Did French Knights Drown in Their Armor?
At Agincourt in 1415, mud slowed French men-at-arms, but arrows, close combat and prisoner killings complicate the story of knights drowning in armor.
Viking Shield Wall: How It Worked in Battle
How Viking shield walls worked, from Gokstad shields and the Battle of Maldon to Stamford Bridge and Hastings, and what the surviving evidence cannot…
Bronze Age Siege Weapons: Rams, Towers and Fire
Bronze Age siege weapons included rams, towers and ladders. Ebla, Mari, Hittite records and Egyptian reliefs reveal what ancient armies actually used.
Who Were the Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age?
Egyptian records name the Sea Peoples. Archaeology, letters and ancient DNA reveal warfare, migration and settlement, but no single homeland.
Hannibal’s War Elephants: From the Alps to Zama
Hannibal marched 37 elephants towards Italy in 218 BCE. Ancient texts, coins and new archaeology reveal how they crossed the Alps, fought and died.
The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest: Rome’s Three Lost Legions
In AD 9, Arminius destroyed three Roman legions under Varus. Ancient accounts and new research at Kalkriese reveal what we know, and what remains…
Who Were the Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age?
Egyptian records name the Sea Peoples. Archaeology, letters and ancient DNA reveal warfare, migration and settlement, but no single homeland.
Hannibal’s War Elephants: From the Alps to Zama
Hannibal marched 37 elephants towards Italy in 218 BCE. Ancient texts, coins and new archaeology reveal how they crossed the Alps, fought…
The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest: Rome’s Three Lost Legions
In AD 9, Arminius destroyed three Roman legions under Varus. Ancient accounts and new research at Kalkriese reveal what we know, and…
